If President Lyndon B. Johnson were alive today, he might be a little surprised to see what鈥檚 become of the federal schools legislation he signed into law 40 years ago this week.
The Elementary and Secondary 91制片厂视频 Act has been amended and rewritten many times since April 11, 1965, the day Mr. Johnson stood before the former one-room schoolhouse in Stonewall, Texas, he once attended to make it the law of the land.
In many ways, the middle-aged law barely resembles the infant born in the heyday of 1960s idealism.
The statute is much fatter now, covering far more programs. The federal government, under Congress鈥� 2001 reauthorization of the ESEA that is better known as the No Child Left Behind Act, has attached a lot more demands in return for federal aid, demands that focus on testing students and holding schools accountable for their academic progress.
But the core mission espoused in the 1965 statute鈥攈elping disadvantaged students improve academically through the cornerstone Title I program鈥攈olds true.
鈥淭he Great Society established the federal role in education as an equity role, as a role of the federal government trying to help kids who were neglected for some reason or another in schools,鈥� said Jack Jennings, the president of the Center on 91制片厂视频 Policy, a Washington research and advocacy group.
鈥淎nd that has remained as the federal role, even in the guise of No Child Left Behind. 鈥� That legacy remains,鈥� said Mr. Jennings, who as a longtime top aide to Democrats on the House education committee helped rewrite the ESEA several times.
Conceived as part of President Johnson鈥檚 War on Poverty, the original statute was focused primarily on delivering federal aid to help level the educational playing field for poor and minority children. And Mr. Johnson鈥攁 former teacher at a predominantly Mexican-American school in Cotulla, Texas鈥攈ad high hopes.
鈥淏y passing this bill, we bridge the gap between helplessness and hope for more than 5 million educationally deprived children,鈥� he told the crowd assembled that spring day in his home state. 鈥淚 believe deeply no law I have signed or will ever sign means more to the future of America.鈥�
Nearly four decades later, President Bush offered his own optimistic take on what the No Child Left Behind Act would mean, and, like Mr. Johnson, traveled to a school to sign his prized legislation.
鈥淸T]oday begins a new era, a new time in public education in our country,鈥� Mr. Bush said in 2002 at Hamilton (Ohio) High School. 鈥淎s of this hour, America鈥檚 schools will be on a new path of reform, and a new path of results.鈥�
A Sea Change
The Elementary and Secondary 91制片厂视频 Act has seen plenty of changes over the past 40 years. The timeline highlights several key alterations, as well as two U.S. Supreme Court decisions related to the law.
1965: President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Elementary and Secondary 91制片厂视频 Act, ushering in a major expansion of the federal role in schools. The centerpiece of the new law is the Title I program for disadvantaged students.
1968: Congress expands the ESEA with new programs and titles, including programs for migrant children, neglected or delinquent children, and the Bilingual 91制片厂视频 Act.
1970: In response to widespread reports of misused federal funds, the law is changed to clamp down on how Title I aid is spent. The legislation, signed by President Richard M. Nixon, adds demands that the federal aid 鈥渟upplement, not supplant鈥� money spent by states and localities, and that Title I schools receive state and local aid 鈥渃omparable鈥� to that received by other schools in the state.
1978: In a reauthorization signed by President Jimmy Carter, Title I aid for the first time can be spent 鈥渟choolwide鈥� if at least 75 percent of children in the school are eligible for the aid.
1981: President Ronald Reagan pushes hard for a rewrite of the law consolidating many programs into a block grant, though the reauthorization main-tains Title I鈥攔enamed Chapter 1鈥攁s a separate program. It also reduces regulatory and paperwork requirements for states and districts. This reauthorization ushered in a period of depressed spending under the federal law.
1985: The Supreme Court, on a 5-4 vote in Aguilar v. Felton, rules that the practice of sending public school teachers into religious schools violates the First Amendment鈥檚 ban on government establishment of religion. As a result, students from religious schools must travel to mobile vans, public schools, or other neutral sites to receive Title I services.
1988: The law takes important steps toward the kind of student testing and accountability later expanded upon. Districts must annually assess, based on standardized-test scores, the effectiveness of Chapter 1 programs in schools. Program improvement plans are required for each school that does not make substantial progress toward raising student achievement.
1994: President Bill Clinton signs the Improving America鈥檚 Schools Act, a reauthorization of the ESEA that requires states to develop standards and aligned assessments for all students. Districts also must identify schools not making 鈥渁dequate yearly progress鈥� and take steps to improve them, though the law is far less strict than the 2001 version in defining AYP and applying consequences to schools that don鈥檛 make it.
1997: The Supreme Court, on a 5-4 vote in Agostini v. Felton, overturns its 1985 ruling by deciding that the U.S. Constitution does not prohibit school districts from sending teachers into religious schools to provide Title I ser-vices to needy students.
2002: President George W. Bush signs the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, which expands the ESEA鈥檚 testing requirements and introduces an aggres-sive federal role in holding states and school districts accountable for showing improved student performance. It also requires all public school classrooms to have 鈥渉ighly qualified鈥� teachers.
Even if, next to the No Child Left Behind Act, the original law seems a tad timid, in 1965 it brought a sea change for federal involvement in schooling. By some estimates, federal K-12 spending tripled between 1964 and 1966.
The ESEA represented 鈥渢he first really direct reach into [all] school districts in the United States,鈥� Harold Howe II, the U.S. commissioner of education from 1965 to 1968, told 91制片厂视频 Week in a 1999 interview.
Historians credit President Johnson and his administration with a masterful performance in navigating the legislation through Congress in less than 100 days.
At a White House ceremony three days after signing the legislation, Mr. Johnson made clear how high a priority it was for him.
鈥淚 worked harder and longer on this measure than on any measure I have ever worked on since I came to Washington in 1931鈥攁nd I am proud of it,鈥� he said.
Of course, the ESEA wasn鈥檛 the only aspect of President Johnson鈥檚 agenda to battle poverty. Other key initiatives from that time included the Head Start preschool program and the Higher 91制片厂视频 Act. And the ESEA quickly grew, with programs added later in the 1960s for children with disabilities, for students needing bilingual education, and those facing other educational challenges.
Over the years, several presidents and countless federal lawmakers have sought to put their imprint on the ESEA. The law鈥檚 formula for doling out Title I aid, for instance, has been relentlessly tweaked. Some early changes to the law responded to the misuse of federal money by schools, including to construct swimming pools.
Especially in the late 1980s and on until today, much of the focus has shifted to finding ways for the federal government to hold states and districts accountable for showing better academic results, as the same achievement gaps for poor and minority children that were obvious in the 1960s persist.
鈥淏asically, the attitude people had [when the law first passed] was, just give the school people good money, and good things will happen,鈥� said Christopher T. Cross, a former assistant education secretary in President George H.W. Bush鈥檚 administration and the author of a 2004 book on the history of the federal role in schooling, Political 91制片厂视频: National Policy Comes of Age.
The 1988 reauthorization鈥攕igned by President Reagan, who earlier had consolidated many federal school programs and oversaw cuts in education spending鈥攂egan to focus on educational outcomes, including demands for testing and accountability. That emphasis grew more focused and intensive with President Clinton鈥檚 Goals 2000 initiative and the 1994 ESEA reauthorization, which mandated that states develop uniform academic standards for all their students and aligned assessments to measure student progress.
The move toward testing and accountability has been ratcheted up significantly with the ESEA鈥檚 No Child Left Behind incarnation.
鈥淚 think it鈥檚 been a natural evolution, frankly,鈥� said Mr. Cross. 鈥淚f anything, what I would be surprised about is that it took almost 40 years to get as serious about it as we are.鈥�
One significant change is the law鈥檚 sweep: The current legislation in various ways affects all public schools and students, not just disadvantaged youths.
鈥淭he No Child Left Behind Act, building on Clinton鈥檚 legacy, clearly has expanded the federal role beyond children at risk to affect all children,鈥� said Mr. Jennings. 鈥淭he federal role has evolved to be much broader, but still that at its heart is an equity concern.鈥�
When Congress first passed the ESEA 40 years ago, it did so despite resistance from several quarters, including Southern Democrats who feared federal interference in racial-segregation practices, and conservative Republicans, who feared Washington would seize control of education decisions.
Given the latter group, David S. Seeley, an education professor at the City University of New York who worked in the U.S. Office of 91制片厂视频 when the ESEA was first passed, sees some irony in President Bush鈥檚 driving the No Child Left Behind Act.
鈥淭here was still a lot of fear that federal money would mean intrusion into local school systems,鈥� he said of sentiments in 1965. 鈥淣ow we come along with a conservative Republican pushing through a bill that has far more intrusion into local education policy than anything that could have been imagined in the 鈥�60s.鈥�
Johnson 鈥楻eally Cared鈥�
Marshall S. Smith, a former deputy education secretary under President Clinton and now the education policy director for the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation in Menlo Park, Calif., said the law has seen an ebb and flow in federal control.
鈥淭here鈥檚 been a struggle in Title I for 40 years,鈥� he said. 鈥淚n the late 鈥�60s, it took the form of misuse of funds 鈥� so they put in a whole bunch of fiscal regulations.鈥�
鈥淲hat those things did was to begin to drive the program,鈥� spurring schools to pull disadvantaged children out of the classroom for special courses often taught by less-qualified instructors, Mr. Smith said. 鈥淚t was just an awful consequence.鈥�
Mr. Smith said he worries that the No Child Left Behind law鈥檚 demands are creating new problems.
鈥淭he present law is in its most top-down manifestation, and has sets of requirements that actually tie the hands of people in the schools in many ways,鈥� he said.
Historians say President Johnson would be dismayed to see how, four decades after he launched his Great Society programs, poverty is so persistent, and poor and minority children still lag well behind the education curve.
鈥淭he one thing about Johnson,鈥� said Roger Wilkins, a professor of history and American culture at George Mason University in Fairfax, Va., 鈥渁s hard as he was on Vietnam, lying to the American people in an awful way, the good Johnson was poverty and race and things like that.鈥�
鈥淗e really cared deeply, profoundly,鈥� said Mr. Wilkins, who served in several posts during the Johnson administration.
It鈥檚 hard to guess what Mr. Johnson would make of the aggressive federal role under the No Child Left Behind Act.
But Maris A. Vinovskis, an education historian at the University of Michigan, in Ann Arbor, said that while many lawmakers from that time would be 鈥渉orrified鈥� at the law鈥檚 mandates, Mr. Johnson might well be of another mind.
鈥淗e didn鈥檛 have any qualms about states鈥� rights and the use of central-government power,鈥� Mr. Vinovskis said. 鈥淲hat Johnson would have done [would be] whatever it takes to make this work, money or whatever is needed. 鈥� He would have the hubris to think that his solutions, or his proposed solutions, are right.鈥�
