About a two-hour drive south of Atlanta, in the city of Warner Robins, there鈥檚 an elementary school named for Richard B. Russell, Georgia鈥檚 longtime and powerful U.S. senator who died in 1971.
In a 1936 re-election campaign for the Senate, Russell, a Democrat, called America 鈥渁 white man鈥檚 country,鈥� and stressed his willingness to make sacrifices to 鈥減reserve and insure white supremacy.鈥� Two decades later, he made his opposition to the racial desegregation of schools very public. And in 1964, he criticized the Civil Rights Act for overturning the separate-but-equal model in the South that aimed to solve 鈥渢he problem of two races living side by side without eventual amalgamation and mongrelization of both.鈥�
As of two years ago, according to the most recent federal data, four out of 10 students at the school memorializing him were black.
If you drive roughly 400 miles west of Warner Robins, you鈥檒l reach Vardaman High School in Vardaman, Miss. Both the school鈥攚here about 13 percent of the students are black鈥攁nd the town are named after James K. Vardaman, a Mississippi governor and U.S. senator in the early 20th century. He once declared in a speech that, if necessary, 鈥淓very Negro in the state will be lynched鈥� in order to maintain white supremacy. And on the subject of educating black children, Vardaman stated, 鈥淭he only effect of Negro education is to spoil a good field hand and make an insolent cook.鈥�
Schools and other public structures that memorialize leaders of the Confederacy have gained intense attention and generated fierce arguments recently鈥�91制片厂视频 Week has found 180 named after Confederates. But there鈥檚 another category of schools that raises similar issues about racial sensitivity while seldom attracting the same scrutiny: schools named after post-Civil War politicians who supported racial segregation up to and through the landmark progress for civil rights in the 1950s and 1960s.
Tangled Legacy
If debates about the wisdom of naming schools for Confederate leaders are an entry point for considering how schools should remember and commemorate history, then the schools named after men like Russell and Vardaman represent the reach and complexities of those discussions.
Counting the number of schools (setting aside other structures and monuments) named after such leaders is difficult. That鈥檚 in part because Confederates are often better known than these post-Civil War politicians, and the most famous Confederates are smaller in number than the many federal, state, and local officials who resisted civil rights for blacks and supported racial segregation over many decades after the Civil War.
To highlight the issue while also focusing on the most powerful lawmakers who made their opposition to civil rights in education explicit and within living memory, 91制片厂视频 Week created a database of schools named for the members of Congress who signed what was known as the Southern Manifesto. This 1956 document directly and vociferously opposed the U.S. Supreme Court鈥檚 1954 Brown v. Board of 91制片厂视频 decision that declared the de jure racial segregation of public schools unconstitutional. The review located 22 such public schools in eight Southern states named after just those leaders.
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Russell signed the document. But Vardaman, who perhaps is an indication of how many schools and communities this issue might touch, was dead before it existed. Thousands of black children attend these schools. (For the sake of consistency and comparability, 91制片厂视频 Week used National Center for 91制片厂视频 Statistics data from the 2016-17 school year, the most recent federal K-12 information available for these schools鈥� demographics.)
Some of these men are more famous鈥攁nd more infamous for their opposition to civil rights鈥攖han others. Strom Thurmond, the longtime U.S. senator from South Carolina, is perhaps the most prominent. But for some on the list, the most intense opposition to civil rights occurred in battles over public schools. And unlike with figures from the Confederacy, people alive today might have voted for signers of the Southern Manifesto and known them personally.
As with schools named for Confederates or other controversial figures, discussing what it means to memorialize these kinds of politicians is in large part a discussion of how to interpret American history. For some, there are noteworthy but not ultimately decisive differences between the two groups of men.
鈥淚 think things are clearer on the Confederate issue. We鈥檝e had that conversation longer,鈥� said Hilary O. Shelton, the NAACP鈥檚 Washington bureau director and its senior vice president for policy and advocacy.
Yet Shelton said even though segregationist politicians should be in history textbooks and museums to recognize their role in American history, and while many of them did make productive contributions to society, that attitude can only go so far.
鈥淚f you have something like a school that鈥檚 named for someone that鈥檚 worked to suppress opportunities for people on the basis of their race,鈥� Shelton said, 鈥渢hat鈥檚 not the kind of person you want to celebrate.鈥�
Jeremy Nesoff, an associate director at Facing History and Ourselves, a nonprofit group that provides professional development to secondary school teachers on controversial topics, said many students, educators, and others know little about figures their schools might memorialize. His group (which doesn鈥檛 directly advocate for school name changes) tells communities that 鈥渋nvestigating local history, and not just in the feel good way ... but in an honest way, can be very revealing about dilemmas in local communities and at the national level.鈥�
In making decisions about things like school names, Nesoff said, it鈥檚 helpful to ask, 鈥淎re we erasing that past? Or are we upholding legacies of racism and discrimination? I think those are very productive conversations for students to have.鈥�
鈥楻esist Forced Integration鈥�
In the Southern Manifesto, officially titled the Declaration of Constitutional Principles, federal lawmakers said that through its Brown ruling, 鈥淭he Supreme Court of the United States, with no legal basis for such action, undertook to exercise their naked judicial power and substituted their personal political and social ideas for the established law of the land.鈥�
They also said the 1954 ruling 鈥渋s destroying the amicable relations between the white and Negro races鈥� and was 鈥渃ertain to destroy the system of public education in some of the States.鈥� Finally, the document praised Southern states 鈥渨hich have declared the intention to resist forced integration by any lawful means.鈥� It foreshadowed a host of moves by Southern politicians in states like Alabama, Arkansas, and Virginia to oppose the integration of public schools.
Aside from Russell and Thurmond, lawmakers who signed the manifesto included Sen. Harry F. Byrd of Virginia, Sen. Allen J. Ellender of Louisiana, Sens. J. William Fulbright and John L. McClellan of Arkansas, Rep. John L. Pilcher of Georgia, Sen. John Sparkman of Alabama, and Sen. John C. Stennis of Mississippi. All these signers of the document were Democrats, and all have had traditional public schools or student vocational centers named after them in their home states.
鈥淭hey were substituting their judgment for the judgment of the Supreme Court. They knew what they were doing,鈥� said Noliwe Rooks, a professor at Cornell University who has studied segregation in education. 鈥淚t was a very clear document. They weren鈥檛 confused. They disbelieved that they should be held accountable.鈥�
Notable lawmakers who did not sign include Sen. Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas鈥攚ho, as president, later signed the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965鈥攁nd Sen. Al Gore Sr. of Tennessee.
The contemporary racial makeup of schools named after Southern Manifesto signers varies considerably. As of 2016-17, Sparkman Elementary School in Hartselle, Ala., just 3 percent of students鈥攕even out of 222鈥攚ere black. But at Strom Thurmond High, in Johnston, S.C., 415 students, or 50 percent of the school鈥檚 enrollment of 830 students, were black.
In general, as these politicians from the Jim Crow era fade and are placed in the past tense, fewer white students and more children of color are attending schools named for them, mirroring a national trend in public education. The availability of federal demographic data, or the existence of such data at all, varies from school to school. But starting as recently as the 2005-06 school year, and as far back as 1987-88, at least 16 of these schools had seen their share of non-white students increase by 2016-17.
Choices to Make
In a handful of recent cases, education leaders have decided to cast aside names of prominent segregationists.
In 2016, for example, a Virginia district stripped Byrd鈥檚 name from a middle school. In addition to signing the Southern Manifesto, Byrd helped lead the state鈥檚 鈥渕assive resistance鈥� to school integration.
Yet different communities don鈥檛 necessarily follow the same path on this issue.
In North Carolina鈥檚 Guilford County, the school board voted in 2017 to rename Aycock Middle School after a long-time local school administrator. The school had been named for Gov. Charles B. Aycock, who was known in that state as the 鈥�91制片厂视频 Governor.鈥� Historical studies have also found that as a prominent backer of white supremacy who once called whites 鈥渢he thoroughbreds,鈥� Aycock helped trigger an 1898 North Carolina race riot in which dozens of people died.
But in North Carolina鈥檚 Wayne County, the district has kept the name of Charles B. Aycock High School, where about one out of five students is black, although a local chapter of the NAACP signalled its opposition to the name in 2015.
In 2017, a University of Mississippi advisory committee unanimously agreed that James K. Vardaman鈥檚 name should be removed from a building on its Oxford campus. The committee鈥檚 report noted Vardaman鈥檚 use of 鈥渞acial hatred鈥� to achieve his political ends. And noting Vardaman鈥檚 opposition to education for blacks, the committee said, 鈥淭his anti-educational stance appears especially at odds with the University鈥檚 mission and core values today.鈥� The name-change hasn鈥檛 been finalized yet.
The issue doesn鈥檛 have the same resonance in Mississippi鈥檚 Calhoun County district, where Vardaman High School (along with Vardaman Elementary School) are located鈥攊ndeed, it鈥檚 unclear whether it鈥檚 talked about at all.
During her 20 years working in Calhoun County schools, Superintendent Lisa Langford said she has 鈥渘ever heard one word mentioned鈥� about any discomfort with the names of the two public schools in Vardaman.
Schools need not be named for the town where they鈥檙e located. But Langford noted that other schools in the county, like the Vardaman elementary and high schools, are named for the cities where they are located.
Asked about the idea of black students going to schools named for a man who insulted the idea of educating such children, Langford said, 鈥淚 don鈥檛 want anyone in our district to be offended by anything that we鈥檙e doing, no matter what it is.鈥� And she said she would welcome a discussion if people raised worries about or opposition to the school names.
However, Langford said, 鈥淯ntil it becomes a problem, it鈥檚 not a problem. I have a lot of fish to fry.鈥�
And in other places, some officials have cited cost as a factor in decisions not to change school names. Last year, Virginia鈥檚 Fairfax County district estimated it would cost $368,000 to change the name of J.E.B. Stuart High School, named for a Confederate general. The school board recently voted to change the name to Justice High School.
鈥榃hite Resistance to Law鈥�
Those who signed the Southern Manifesto, and others with similar views, have public records extending beyond their views and actions on civil rights in schools.
Fulbright of Arkansas is known for the prestigious scholarship named after him that provides research and study opportunities to students in more than 140 countries, and for his work on foreign relations, particularly during the Vietnam War, which he came to oppose. McClellan had a substantial footprint in Senate investigations into subversive activities during the Cold War, and for his probes of organized crime.
And Russell wrote the original National School Lunch Act, which by one estimate provided daily free or reduced-cost meals to 30 million low-income students in fiscal 2017.
The manifesto was not a clear-cut issue for Southern politicians in the 1950s who did not make racial segregation their calling card, said Janine Parry, a professor of political science at the University of Arkansas鈥� J. William Fulbright College of Arts and Sciences, which is named for the senator. Lawmakers like Fulbright had to weigh the damage not signing the document might do to their tenure in the Senate.
In a 1997 article for Arkansas Historical Quarterly, Cambridge University Professor Tony Badger wrote that Fulbright said he signed the document only reluctantly, and after securing changes to the manifesto that moderated its tone. Badger noted that Fulbright never disavowed this position.
鈥淗e still participated in a defense of something that was indefensible. But he was a politician. He understood that this was a show of Southern unity,鈥� Parry said. 鈥淚f he didn鈥檛 participate, he could be pilloried for it later. He was constantly balancing what he knew was good public policy with what his constituency could tolerate.鈥�
In the context of education and formal commemoration, distinctions between men like Fulbright and Thurmond are important when considering their respective public legacies, said Kevin Kruse, a Princeton University professor who has studied segregation and race in South.
Just as men like George Washington owned slaves but are not primarily remembered as slave owners, Kruse said, 鈥淔ulbright backed segregation in a lot of ways. But that鈥檚 not what he鈥檚 primarily known for.鈥�
By contrast, 鈥淚 would see a school named after Thurmond like a school named after [Robert E.] Lee,鈥� Kruse added. 鈥淗is claim to fame really was that opposition to civil rights from Truman up through the Johnson era and beyond. Lee is clearly the worst case. But I would put Thurmond in the same ballpark.鈥�
The various lawmakers鈥� records diverge in the years after the Southern Manifesto, and their actions sometimes reflect a shift in attitudes or at least priorities.
In 1970, Fulbright spearheaded the Senate鈥檚 rejection of President Richard Nixon鈥檚 nominee to the Supreme Court, G. Harrold Carswell, who was prominent for his hostility to civil rights and support for segregation. In 1982, Stennis broke with his previous record by supporting an extension of the Voting Rights Act, although the following year, he voted against making Martin Luther King Jr.'s birthday a national holiday.
Still, Rooks said, while these men may not have fomented secession and massive armed conflict like their Confederate predecessors, their reaction to Brown is directly linked to situations like the deployment of Army troops to uphold the Brown decision, as in the case of Little Rock Central High School in Little Rock, Ark., in 1957.
鈥淵ou have this white resistance to law,鈥� Rooks said. 鈥淚t鈥檚 arguable that a kid sitting in a Strom Thurmond school would have no idea who he is. All you know is that the school is named after someone that matters.鈥�
A Welcoming School
Time might render the issue moot in some communities. At McClellan High School, a magnet school where 719 of the school鈥檚 806 students were black in 2016-17, students will be reassigned to a new high school in 2020, and the plan is to convert the school into a K-8 facility.
Through a spokeswoman, Little Rock district Superintendent Mike Poore said that to the best of his knowledge, concern about the school鈥檚 name 鈥渉as not been raised鈥� during his tenure. A final decision about the new K-8 building鈥檚 name hasn鈥檛 been reached, although the district said many McClellan alumni are interested in maintaining the school鈥檚 name.
Parry said that in Arkansas, any discussion about changing the names of schools named after men like McClellan and Fulbright would be 鈥渞obust.鈥� What might be decisive, she said, is whether pressure to rename such schools came from inside their respective communities or from outside.
Asked whether renaming schools named after ardent segregationists should be a priority for communities compared to other socioeconomic challenges they might face, Nesoff of Facing History and Ourselves, stressed he 鈥渨ould never want to tell a community what the right choice for them is to focus on.鈥� But he added that students who are made aware of who their buildings commemorate and want to explore the matter further should not be ignored either.
鈥淭he things that make a school a welcoming and safe community are not just the resources that are put there,鈥� he said.
