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The cheating scandal that has rocked the 48,000-student Atlanta school system was an egregious, but not entirely unexpected, byproduct of accountability pressures, many testing experts say.

The reason: As long as test scores are used in any field to make decisions on rewards or punishments, including for schools or educators, a small percentage of people will be willing to bend the rules鈥攐r break them.

But the allegations of systematic test alteration by teachers and principals in Atlanta, along with recent accusations of cheating in Baltimore, the District of Columbia, Philadelphia and other districts, have highlighted a split between those arguing for improved test management and security and those who ask if it鈥檚 better to scrap high-stakes testing altogether.

Yong Zhao, the associate dean for global education at the University of Oregon, in Eugene, used the Atlanta situation as a jumping-off point for a in his blog Zhao Learning. The United States should 鈥渄itch testing,鈥� he believes.

In an interview, he said that the country should move to a portfolio-based assessment system that measures students in several areas.

鈥淵ou can鈥檛 fix this by changing internal security,鈥� Mr. Zhao said. 鈥淚f the stakes are so high that the teachers don鈥檛 even believe the measurement itself, they鈥檙e going to try to cheat.鈥�

In contrast, Gregory J. Cizek, a professor of educational measurement and evaluation at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, who assisted state investigators in their Atlanta probe, said that there are no suggestions that sports should be eliminated just because some athletes cheat. In his view, tests produce high-quality information that educators need to make good decisions.

鈥淏laming tests or accountability systems for things we don鈥檛 like is a dumb idea. Like banning thermometers for revealing fevers,鈥� Mr. Cizek wrote in an opinion essay last month for 91制片厂视频 Week鈥檚 website. (鈥淐heating on Tests and Other Dumb Ideas,鈥� July 25, 2011.)

鈥淭ests are a measure of student achievement,鈥� Mr. Cizek added in an interview. 鈥淚t鈥檚 difficult to imagine any measurement system that doesn鈥檛 take into account student achievement,鈥� he said.

Test Value

Nationally, there appears to be no move to lessen the importance of test-based accountability.

Standardized tests remain at the heart of determining whether schools and districts make adequate yearly progress in raising student achievement under the federal No Child Left Behind Act. The tests are also being used to develop 鈥渧alue added鈥� measures that will gauge an individual educator鈥檚 effect on a student learning. And two state assessment consortia have received federal funds to design tests for the new common-core academic standards adopted by all but five states.

U.S. Secretary of 91制片厂视频 Arne Duncan said that he was 鈥渟tunned鈥� by the results of the Atlanta investigation, but stressed that other schools and districts across the country are making genuine progress without cheating.

In an interview last month with an Atlanta-area television station, Mr. Duncan said that the situation in that city stood out because of the 鈥渃learly systemic鈥� nature of the apparent cheating.

鈥淭here鈥檚 never been anything like it, and we hope there never is again,鈥� he told the city鈥檚 NBC affiliate.

Uncommon Occurrence?

Statistical analysis of the prevalence of teacher- or administrator-led cheating appears to bear out the belief that such misconduct involves a small minority. In 2003, economics professors Brian A. Jacob, of the University of Michigan, in Ann Arbor, and Steven D. Levitt, of the University of Chicago, of every Chicago 3rd through 8th grader who took the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills from 1993 through 2000. They detected evidence of 鈥渟erious鈥� cheating in 4 percent to 5 percent of their sample.

Professors at Arizona State University, in Phoenix, conducted last year of 3,000 teachers, which found that 10 percent reported that they knew of colleagues who had engaged in the most egregious forms of cheating, such as changing answer sheets or somehow preventing low-performing students from taking the tests.

But even though such activity is believed to be relatively rare, it is hardly unknown. And it can sometimes affect the test results of hundreds, or thousands, of students at a time and cast doubt on claims of improvement in achievement.

In 1999, the chief investigator for the New York City schools released a that alleged 32 schools in all five boroughs had engaged in teacher- or administrator-led cheating. The language of that report, written by a team led by the late Edward F. Stancik, strikes a tone remarkably similar to that of the Atlanta report.

New York students allegedly were coached to the right answers on the citywide tests, or prepared for the tests using actual questions and answers from the exams. At that time, the cheating scandal was called one of the nation鈥檚 largest.

鈥淲hen cheating occurred, it rendered the use of standardized tests as a diagnostic tool鈥攖o evaluate not only student performance, but educator performance as well鈥攎eaningless,鈥� the report concluded. The United Federation of Teachers, which represents the city鈥檚 teaching force, commissioned its own scathing review, saying that Mr. Stancik鈥檚 work had overstated the problem.

In another case, the increased academic performance under then-Gov. George W. Bush that was often called the 鈥淭exas miracle鈥� burnished Mr. Bush鈥檚 record for his 2000 presidential campaign. He often noted the nearly six straight years of gains in test scores among students, particularly minorities, during his state tenure, from 1995 to 2000.

The Texas testing policy went on to become the foundation of the testing policy created in the No Child Left Behind law and brought Rod Paige, the former Houston superintendent, to Washington as Mr. Bush鈥檚 first education secretary.

But those scores in some districts were tainted after newspaper and state investigations revealed gains in some schools that were improbably large. A later state investigation found one Houston school that falsified dropout data.

Scholars often say such cheating incidents are examples of 鈥淐ampbell鈥檚 law鈥� at work. Donald T. Campbell, a social scientist, wrote in the 1970s that 鈥渢he more any quantitative social indicator is used for social decisionmaking, the more subject it will be to corruption pressures and the more apt it will be to distort and corrupt the social processes it was intended to monitor.鈥�

In other words, the more important test scores become, the more likely it is that test scores will end up corrupted.

Fixing the System

In the debate over testing, however, school officials are focused more on trying to fix the testing system than on upending it.

James A. Wollack, a professor of educational psychology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and an expert in test security, says that testing systems would benefit from impartial investigators who would independently probe cheating allegations.

鈥淵ou really do need someone who鈥檚 impartial, who doesn鈥檛 have friends in the school system, and who doesn鈥檛 have friends in the governor鈥檚 office,鈥� he said. The state investigation in Atlanta stands among similar probes of cheating incidents because of the involvement of dozens of agents from the Georgia Bureau of Investigation.

Georgia has also been taking steps to combat potential cheating by sending monitors from the state education department to schools around the state that have been flagged in the prior year as having high numbers of test-sheet erasures, said Matt Cardoza, the director of communications for the department. The state has done that for the past two years, and it has seen a drop in scores among some schools that were previously high performers, he said.

Having outside monitors, Mr. Cardoza said, will 鈥渟low down that unethical behavior.鈥�

New York state has decided to combat cheating among teachers, administrators, and students by forming a board that will offer recommendations by the beginning of the 2012-13 school year. The board will review all aspects of the state鈥檚 testing system, said a spokesman for the New York education department.

But Audrey Amrein-Beardsley, an associate professor of education at Arizona State and the lead author of the study that surveyed teachers on cheating prevalence, recommends focusing on other practices that harm the validity of tests, such as the behavior she says she engaged in during her time as a classroom math teacher.

Ms. Amrein-Beardsley said she never altered a student鈥檚 answer sheet, or encouraged low-performing students to stay home on test day. However, she would get copies of the state tests before they were administered, change the details and numbers of word problems, and then use those slightly altered questions to drill her students, she said. She was so successful, she said, that she was asked to be her district鈥檚 test coordinator.

Some might call such work savvy test preparation. Ms. Amrein-Beardsley said she looks back on it and believes it was a form of cheating that narrowed classroom instruction to a few items that would be measured on a test. Her survey found those kinds of actions far more prevalent than actively changing test sheets.

鈥淭eaching to the test is still third-degree [cheating] in my mind,鈥� she said.